Environmental Psychology - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6175 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? 1. Place theory Place is used as a manner of examining the environment and breaking the environment down into conceptual components. It is difficult to examine space and environment as they are too general. To understand the concept of environmental psychology, one would firstly have to establish the meaning of place theory as peoples interaction with their physical environment is a principal in environmental psychology. The place theory has three aspects that are interlinked with each other (see figure 1). These three aspects are physical attributes, conceptions and human activities. According to Canter (1997) a place is a state of harmony created by the dialogue between human activities, conceptions and the physical attributes of the environment viewed from a historical perspective. However, Castello (2006) states that place is a unit where human experiences and physical form are fused together, creating a unitary context. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Environmental Psychology" essay for you Create order The physical attributes of the place theory demonstrates the surroundings or environment in which a person finds himself, such as a bedroom, an office etc. A geographer, Edward Relph (1976), has a similar notion of place but replaced Canters (1997) aspect of conceptions with experiences. Thus, allowing more information to be gathered about the place as experiences are a result of an individuals history and everyday life. The types of human activities and the way in which it is carried out are contingent on factors such as knowledge, cultural background, values, as well as formal and informal controls (Ndubisi, 2002). As a result, the place theory suggests that places are viewed as holistic units of activities, physical form and meaning shaped by the goals and purposes of individuals. The place theory also works in concurrence with place identity and place attachment. Many researchers explore this dynamic relationship between people and place. Place identity and place attachment are concepts that demonstrate the significant relations between a person and place. Moreover, when individuals interact with their environment, they create bonds and links and their environment develops meaning. 1.1 Place identity There are many factors that shape human identity, and identity is (among other things) a product of the psychical environment (Hauge, 2007). Dixon and Durrheim (2000) state that a key moment in environmental psychologys critique of a disembodied notion of identity was the publication of Proshansky, Fabian, and Kaminoffs paper on place identity. Place identity, according to Proshansky (1987), can be defined as: a sub-structure of the self-identity of the person consisting of broadly conceived cognitions about the physical world in which individuals live. Pretty et al (2003) state that place identity is a cognitive structure which contributes to global self-categorisation and social identity processes. According to Knez (2005): Breakwell (1986, 1992, 1993), Twigger-Ross and Uzzell (1996), Twigger-Ross et al (2003), and Vignoles (2000) has suggested four processes related to place identity: place-related distinctiveness (e.g. I am a South African) place-referent continuity (e.g. I am living there because it reminds me of my past) place-related self-esteem (e.g. I am proud to live in this town) place-related self-efficacy (e.g. The town satisfies my needs and wants) Consequently, these processes encourage our self-esteem and identity as individuals. Hence the questions of who we are are often intimately related to questions of where we are (Dixon Durrheim 2000; Pretty et al 2003). The places people belong to does not just encourage their self-esteem but also their environmental preferences, and how they see themselves. Place identity could also lead to place attachment because when an individual identifies himself with the environment, individuals tend to feel attached to the same environment. 1.2 Place attachment Every single one of us has developed an unconscious bond towards some place over a period of time. It is suggested by Inalhan and Finch (2004) that the concept of place attachment is complex and multi-faceted, as place attachment has been studied by scholars from several disciplines such as; anthropology, architecture, family and consumer studies, folklore, gerontology, landscape architecture, psychology and urban planning. Place attachment can vary from place to place and can change easily depending on the degree of belonging of the person (Knez 2005). Thus, the degree of attachment a person has towards a place may determine the perceptions and satisfaction of the person in the specific place. Our attachment to a place grows with length of time living in a place and age, but mostly through positive interaction with a community. According to Milligan (1998) place attachment could be defined as: place attachment occurs when a particular interaction was accompanied by significant meaning However place attachment, according to Knez (2005), can be defined as: the affective positive bond between a person and a place; more specifically, a strong tendency of that person to maintain closeness to such a place. Many studies and researchers show that there is no single accepted definition of place attachment. The definition offered by Milligan (1998) serves a better purpose for this study. From this definition it is clear that place attachment is an emotional bond formed by an individual to a physical setting due to the meaning given to the location through processes of person-environment interactions (Casakin Kreitler, 2008). According to Halpenny (2005), one of the factors that could play a role in the formation of place attachment is satisfaction with a place. Moreover, if individuals are satisfied with their environments they tend to protect that place more and return to it. Payton (2003) and Warzecha et al (2000) state that place attachment has two main concepts that have been prevalent in literature: functional place attachment and emotional place attachment. Functional place attachment refers to the functionality or the ability of the resources to meet the needs or goals of individuals. Furthermore, functional place attachment is also closely linked to the kind of activities users pursue. This is because some activities are more complex and require specific aspects while other activities are more general. Shumaker and Taylor (1983) suggest that functional attachment is also referred to as place dependence. The concept is affected by two factors (Shumaker Taylor, 1983): The quality of place is determined by the individuals satisfaction and, The quality of the place depends on how it compares to other available places. Emotional place attachment refers to the emotional attributes of a person-place relationship and how place contributes to an individuals identity. Shumaker and Taylor (1983) declare that emotional attachment is also referred to as symbolic attachment. Moreover, emotional place attachment can be based on emotional ties to a specific place and is formed over a certain period through many encounters with the environment. According to Warzecha et al (2000), emotional place attachment may also be expressed as an identity with a symbolic meaning or idea. Place theory and all its aspects mentioned above form a fundamental starting point for any study in environmental psychology. 2. Introduction to Environmental psychology There are numerous people who do not know what environmental psychology is and what it consists of. Traditionally, environmental psychology has focused on the interrelationship between environments and human behaviour (De Young, 1999; Garling Golledge, 1993). According to Gifford (1997) individuals change the environment and their behaviour and experiences are changed by the environment. Furthermore, each individuals behaviour and experience is unique and differs from the person standing next to him/her in the same environment. These environments could be natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments (Veith Arkkelin, 1995). Environmental psychology also consists of environmental psychological-processes in terms of a clear social-psychological perspective (Bonnes, 2003). These processes are individual processes such as perception, cognition and personality, and social processes such as territoriality, personal space, crowding and privacy. In addition, environmental psychology has continual elements that help to define this relatively unknown field. According to Garling and Golledge (1993), Kaplan and Kaplan (1982) these elements are: Attention Understanding an individuals behaviour begins with understanding how he/she notices and perceives the environment. This includes two types of stimuli: those that unwillingly, even distractingly, demand human notice, as well as those places, things or ideas to which humans must willingly, and with endeavour direct their awareness. Re-establishing and enhancing the individuals competence to willingly express his/her attention is a major factor in maintaining human effectiveness in an environment. Perception and cognitive maps How people perceive the natural and built environment has been an important aspect of environmental psychology. Information is memorised in the brain as spatial networks which is known a cognitive maps. This information links experiences with an individuals perception of current actions, ideas and emotions. It is through these spatial networks that individuals recognize and perceive the environment, plan and conduct these plans. Ideal environments à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" People have a tendency to look for places where they feel self-assured and competent, where they can familiarise themselves with the environment whilst also being engaged with it. Research has extended the concept of environmental psychology to embrace unity (a sense that things in the environment work together) and legibility (the assumption that an individual can walk around in an environment without being lost) as contributors to environmental understanding. To investigate an environment and to engage in it requires that the environment has complexity (that it has enough information and diversity to make it worth learning about) and mystery (the expectation of acquiring more information about an environment). Maintaining, re-establishing and developing an ideal environment enhances an individuals sense of well being and behavioural effectiveness in a person. Environmental stress and managing Research has recognized various behavioural and cognitive results including poor physical health, reduced selflessness and weaknesses, as well as paying no attention to the environment. Individuals can adjust their physical or social surroundings to create a more supportive environment (e.g. smaller scaled settings, territories, privacy, personal space) where they can supervise the course of information or stress inducing stimuli. Individuals can also seek to understand or make sense of circumstances as a way to resolve its stressful effects, often sharing these interpretations with other individuals as a part of their culture. Involvement à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Environmental psychology is dedicated to improve an individuals participation in environmental design. It is focused not only on promoting an individuals understanding of environmental issues but on ensuring their early and actual participation in the design, adjustment and organisation of environments. Protective behaviour à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Environmental psychology has also played a key role in conveying psychological awareness to abide by the matter of developing an ecologically protracting society. The field also investigates environmental attitudes, perceptions and principles as well as planned involvement techniques for promoting environmentally appropriate behaviour. These continual elements form an essential part in an individuals perception of their environment as well as what to expect in that environment. Gifford (1997) states that environmental psychology is also studied at three levels of analysis. The first level of analysis sorts and arranges each individuals occurrence of the environment according to perceptions, cognition and personality. The next level of analysis is the collective organisation of space, which consists of four aspects namely; personal space, territory, crowding and privacy. The last level of analysis is the physical settings in which individuals find themselves every day. 2.1 Level of analysis 2.1.1 Perceptions, cognition and personality As previously mentioned, individuals form certain perceptions of their environment and surroundings. According to Veith and Arkkelin (1995), perception is one of the most basic and fundamental psychological processes in which humans engage. In addition Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) also state that perceptions are highly cognitive, which means that all environments carry a set of meanings acquired through their specific attributes. Consequently, these meanings are established from the environment by the perceiver with reference to his or her personal beliefs, values and attitudes. Furthermore, Bechtel et al (2002) point out that the forming of perceptions of a physical setting is associated with a molecular approach to the spatial-physical environment. This means that it places specific attention on the discrete sensory-perceptual features of the environment. According to Bell et al (2005) the term sensory-perceptions has been applied to relatively straightforward activity of human senso ry systems in reacting to a simple stimuli and forming a perception of the particular environment. According to Bonnes et al (1995) the term environmental perception is also often used interchangeably with environmental image, mental map and cognitive map. However, according to Bell et al (2005) cognitive maps refer to a mental framework that holds some representation for the spatial arrangement of the physical environment. Furthermore, Salmi (2002) states that wayfinding and cognitive mapping are inseparable, and most humans carry many cognitive maps in their heads. Therefore, cognitive maps assist individuals with another aspect of environmental psychology namely; wayfinding. Wayfinding according to Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) can be defined as the ability to navigate successfully through the environment. However, wayfinding according to Passini (1984) can be defined as the ability to identify ones location and arrive at destinations in the environment, both cognitively and behaviourally. Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) suggests that wayfinding can not be predicted in humans as different factors; internal and external, come into play. Internal factors include aspects of each individual, such as, gender, familiarity with the environment and the types of strategies the person uses to navigate through the environment (HÃÆ' ¶lscher et al 2006 and Spiers Maguire 2008). External factors include aspects of the physical setting, such as, the density of the built environment, the availability of meaningful landmarks, and the pattern of the streets and intersections as well as staffed information booths (Salmi 2002). HÃÆ' ¶lscher et al (2006; 2009) identified three wayfinding strategies that are used to support route choice decisions in three dimensional multi-level buildings. Firstly, the central point strategy as sticking oneself, as much as possible, to main hallways and main places in the building, especially if the individual is unfamiliar with the building. Secondly, the direction strategy of deciding on routes that leads towards the horizontal position of the goal as directly as possible, irrespective of changes in different levels. Thirdly, the hierarchically organised navigation plan strategy. This strategy is based on cognitively sectioning the building into areas which guide navigation decisions. However, Spiers and Maguire (2008) identified their own wayfinding strategies that assist individuals with their wayfinding experience. Least-angle strategy suggests that paths are chosen that minimise deviation from the angle pointing directly to the goal. Fine-to-coarse strategy proposes that routes are planned in fine detail in the currently occupied region, but only coarsely when planning navigation between regions. Least-decision-load strategy implies that individuals will often choose the path with the least number of possible decision points. As stated above, environmental psychology and the physical environment are influenced through wayfinding in a building, cognitive maps as well as perceptions of the environment. Another aspect that influences environmental psychology is personality of an individual. Gifford (1997) pointed out that there are five reasons why personality is an important part in environmental psychology. These five reasons are: Personality is strongly linked to the physical environment; Information of a persons personality helps us to comprehend and foretell environmentally relevant behaviour; Individuals have dispositions that are particularly related to person-environment transactions; Personal dispositions are an essential aspect to one of environmental psychologys most important concepts à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" environmental compatibility; The notion of personality can be applied to places instead of people. Bonnes et al (1995) agree with Gifford (1997) on the third reason. They suggest that personality and the environment are related to the disposition of individuals. 2.1.2 Collective organisation of space Spatial organisation or organisation of space is considered the first major component in wayfinding design because it not only defines the wayfinding problems of future users, but also affects the ease or difficulty users will experience in comprehending and cognitively mapping the setting (Passini, 1984). According to Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) spatial orientation tasks are influenced by the familiarity of the environment. Furthermore, Iachini et al (2009) state that unfamiliar participants learn the environment through a map, whereas familiar participants rely on their long term experiences with the environment. According to Salmi (2002) there are key points to look out for in organisation of space. These points include: Architectural features in the building define different areas such as hallways, staircases etc. which assist the user with orientation in the building and increase the cognitive experience; Make sure that large-scale buildings have destination zones, such as an atrium, since it would assist the user to retrace his/her own path; Establish spatial overview opportunities so that a visitor can visualise a buildings design from different vantage points as it helps individuals to build a improved cognitive map; Consider the design of the building as a whole, the layout should not be confusing or allow visitors to get lost easily. 2.1.3 Physical settings According to Salmi (2002) physical settings must accommodate an increasingly, diverse population as it is critical that the setting be designed to be as inclusive and universally accessible as possible, addressing the requirements of a wide range of physical, sensory and cognitive abilities and needs. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) state that any number of behaviours can occur within any physical setting. Moreover, Bell et al (2005) declare that physical settings both facilitate and constrains or limits the behaviour that occurs in it. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) added that attitude towards an environment will influence a persons behaviours such as littering and attachment to the place. With environmental psychology being such a diverse field with many different aspects, the interactions between the four phenomenons (privacy, crowding, territoriality and personal space) help to address problems associated with environmental psychology. Gifford (1997) also states that environmental psychology is aimed at making buildings more humane and improving our relationship with the natural environment. 3. Privacy Privacy is an important phenomenon that each individual wants to achieve on a daily basis. There are many laws that have been established regarding individuals privacy, such as the right to privacy. Thus allowing individuals to have their own level of privacy. The level of privacy is measured in relation to the other social processes of environmental psychology namely; personal space, territoriality and crowding (Gifford 1997; Veitch and Arkkelin 1995, Bonnes et al 1995). In addition, according to Harris et al (1995) and Altman (1975) people use complex combinations of verbal, paraverbal, nonverbal and spatial mechanisms to attain a desired level of contact and degree of privacy. Faulkner et al (1994) state that the level of privacy is physical (sleeping, dressing) and psychological (for development and renewal). According to Demirbas and Demirkan (2000), the definition of privacy varies for each individual due to the different personal characteristics, cultural backgrounds, sex, age, economical, educational and social backgrounds. Ding (2008) defines privacy as the personal control over interactions and/or communications with others. However, Gritzalis et al (2009) state that privacy can generally be defined as the right to be left alone, meaning that it represents a sphere where it is possible to remain separate from others, anonymous and unobserved. Therefore, it is evident that privacy refers to the manner in which individuals control or regulate other individuals access to themselves. However privacy does not necessary mean withdrawing from people (Pederson, 1999; Marshall, 1972), instead it involves controlling the amount and type of contact one has with others. Gifford (1997) further declares that it is not easy to assess privacy because of its complex nature; as it has been measured in terms of preference, behaviour, need and expectation of each individual. Bonnes et al (1995) also state that the major interest of empirical research has been to study and measure the more strictly motivational and evaluative aspects such as; needs, expectations and values that individuals variously associate with privacy. Harris et al (1995) state that the universal aspects of privacy regulations are suggested by the apparent relationship between privacy, place attachment and quality of life. Cassidy (1997) pointed out that not everyone will react in the same way with regard to privacy. According to Altman (1975) and Westin (1970) there are certain characteristics that influence privacy such as: Individuals need for privacy is a continuing dynamic of changing internal and external conditions External and internal conditions are affected by privacy achieved Individuals effort to control privacy may be unsuccessful at some times Privacy can take different forms as it has many dimensions. 3.1 Types of privacy Demirbas and Demirkan (2000) also state that there are four types of privacy namely; solitude, reserve, anonymity and intimacy. Solitude refers to being alone and unobserved by others, which is either a neutral or desirable condition. Reserve, in turn, means that individuals form barriers between themselves and their environments which regulate intrusion. Anonymity is a type of privacy that gives individuals a chance to move around in a public environment without other people recognising them. Intimacy refers to an individuals aspiration to encourage close personal relationships with only preferred individuals. Additionally, Pederson (1999) identifies two more types of privacy; intimacy with family (being alone with family) and intimacy with friends (being alone with friends). According to Harris et al (1995) social functions of privacy and privacy regulation are central to psychological well-being. Privacy regulation refers to selective control over access to the self or to ones group (Altman 1975). Thus, making it clear that regulation of the types of privacy, mentioned above, is a function of both personal and situational factors. Personal factors refer to the individuals need for privacy, personal attractiveness, interpersonal skills, personality variables and ability to utilise privacy control mechanisms (Pederson, 1999). Situational factors may be social or physical. Social factors are presence, willingness and personal characteristics of others who have the potential for social interaction. Physical factors entail aspects such as barriers, location, layout and distances (Pederson, 1999). 3.2 Benefits and functions of privacy The psychological benefits of privacy reflect the function of privacy. Privacy supports social interaction which, in turn, affects our competence to deal with our world, which affects our self-definition (Altman, 1975). Therefore, the benefits of privacy arise from achieving its functions. According to Margulis (2005) the benefits of privacy are: Privacy is a basis for the development of identity, Privacy protects personal autonomy, Privacy supports healthy functioning by providing needed opportunities to relax, to ones self, to emotionally vent, to escape from the stresses of daily life, to manage bodily and sexual functions and to cope with loss, shock, and sorrow. However Keenan (2005) identifies other categories that capture the kinds of benefits privacy holds for people: Natural and psychological benefits: privacy provides physical, psychological and spiritual benefits to individuals. Individuals have certain needs, such as security and connectedness, that they want to satisfy, but invasion of privacy destroys ones sense of connectedness; Creative benefits: many people see privacy as conductive to creativity. Individuals have the need to have their own rooms where they are away from other people and regulate their privacy; Protective benefits: this refers to physical invasion of individuals sense of being safe and secure such as, the protection of ones home from burglary; Social benefits: individuals have the ability to regulate their own invasion of privacy and allow people they know or do not know to invade that privacy on a social basis; Democratic benefits: privacy is self-determining à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" each individual has the right to be left alone. According to Veitch snd Arkkelin (1995) the functions of privacy are: the achievement of a self-identity and the management of interactions between oneself and the social environment. According to Margulis (2005), privacy is important because it provides us with experiences that support normal psychological functioning, stable interpersonal relationships, and personal development. 3.3 Achieving privacy in design Individuals have a definite desire to a certain level of privacy in their homes. Privacy, in an architectural manner, can be defined as; the ability of individuals and families to lead their own lives without either interfering à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" or being interfered by the lives of others (Goodchild 1997). According to Faulkner et al (1994) a home provides privacy from outsiders with walls that protect the individual from physical, visual and various degrees of acoustical intrusion. Furthermore, Goodchild (1997) identifies three types of privacy in designing a house, whether in the house or outside the house: Firstly, privacy means circumventing problems with neighbours. Problems could arise when the layout of the resident and the type of housing is not correct such as; the walls of the enclosed area of each persons house are not high enough, which influences privacy. Secondly, privacy means a sense of seclusion. It means freedom from overlooking and freedom form invasive noise. This could be achieved by using noise insulation techniques and higher walls to increase space between neighbours. Thirdly, privacy means freedom from disturbance from other people, either guests or members of the same family, within the home. The level of privacy inside the home is determined by the number of different rooms in relation to the family size. Faulkner et al (1994) also states that the floor plan sets the privacy levels at which the home functions such as; open floor plan or closed floor plan. 3.4 Mechanisms of privacy Four aspects of privacy regulation mechanisms have been identified through data by Westin (1970) and Kent (1993). Firstly, privacy controls provide standards of behaviour for individuals and groups. Secondly, privacy creates an option between isolation and interaction, and can create the perception of being by yourself. Thirdly, individuals, groups, and societies tend to enter the privacy of others; curiosity is an example of this aspects. Fourthly, as society moves form primeval to contemporary, the physical and psychological opportunities for privacy increase. According to Bonnes et al (1995) and Altman (1975) personal space and territorial behaviour are used by individuals primarily to regulate privacy and to maintain their openness/closedness towards others at optimal levels. Additionally, Harris et al (1996) suggest that when individuals are confronted with negative privacy experiences, they will use a variety of privacy regulation mechanisms including verbal and nonverbal behaviours, cognitive, environmental, temporal and cultural mechanisms. Altman (1975) further suggests that the effectiveness and ease of implementing privacy regulation mechanisms may vary considerably across individuals and across social, physical and temporal context. Consequently, by combining these mechanisms individuals can efficiently express their needed level of privacy to others in order to attain the optimal level of privacy. Altman (1975) developed a framework for understanding the mechanisms of privacy regulation. This framework can be used as a summary of all of the above mentioned aspects of privacy (see figure 2). This figure indicates that privacy is a central concept that links the different phenomenons of environmental psychology (personal space, territoriality and crowding) with privacy regulation mechanisms. 4. Territoriality The phenomenon territoriality is extremely widespread in the field of environmental psychology since it consists of many different definitions. According to Gifford (1997) there are different variables that influence territoriality such as; dominance, conflict, security, claim staking, arousal, vigilance, behaviour and cognition to place. Gifford (1997) also states that a formal definition for territoriality is: is a pattern of behaviour and attitudes held by an individual or group that is based on perceived, attempted, or actual control of a definable physical space, object or idea that may involve habitual occupation, defense, personalisation and marking of it. However territoriality, according to Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) can be defined as: behaviour by which an organism characteristically lays claim to an area and defend it against intrusion by members of his or her own species. According to Altman (1975) territories exist to meet both physical and social needs, while being temporarily or permanently owned, controlled, marked or personalised and potentially defended by occupants or owners. On the other hand, territoriality comprises a specific set of affective, cognitive and behavioural tendencies expressed towards the territory (Altman 1975). Faulkner et al (1994) agrees with Altman (1975), however suggests that territory is a specifically defined area owned or controlled and personalised by defensive boundary markers such as fences, signs, nameplates, or sometimes behavioural cues as simple as a cold stare. Territoriality is linked to self-identity and works in relation to an individuals psychological well-being. According to Proshansky et al (1983) internal determinants of territorial behaviour are to maintain and achieve privacy. Faulkner et al (1994) declares that the concept of territoriality in humans is closely related to the attainment and protection of privacy. Privacy, in turn, releases individuals from various emotional strains and provides a place of evaluation of oneself. 4.1 Types of territoriality Gifford (1997), Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) and Fraine et al (2007) recognize two systems for classifying territorialities: the Altman system as well as the Lyman and Scott system. The Altman system à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" a key attribute to this system is the degree of privacy, attachment or accessibility. Furthermore the system identifies three different types of territoriality. Primary territories: this refers to places that individuals own and which are controlled by them on a regular basis over a certain time and revolve around their everyday lives. Primary territories are seen as an extension of the self in terms of self-identity and self-esteem being related to the area. Additionally, Gifford (1997) states that the psychological importance of a primary territory to its occupant(s) is always high. Secondary territories: this type of territory is not that essential to individuals as the person does not have complete control over the environment and the duration of the occupancy is temporary. A persons desk at the office and a locker at school are examples of secondary territories. Public territories: this refers to areas where everyone has equal rights to use the specific area such as the sidewalk, public bathrooms. Gifford (1997) points out that public territory is open to all outsiders who are not specifically excluded. Fraine et al (2007) points out that primary territories is the most central and enduring, while public territories are the least. The Lyman and Scott system à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this system overlaps with the above mentioned system and in addition identified two more types of territoriality: 1) Interactional territories: this type refers to areas that are momentarily controlled by people who interact with each other such as; classrooms, offices or parks. 2) Body territories: this refers to the physical self as a territory à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" sometimes bodies are entered with or without permission. With permission, is when an individual gives authorisation for someone to enter their bodily territory for instance, with surgery. Without permission, is when entering of bodily territory occurs without the individuals consent such as an attack. 4.2 Territorial behaviour Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) declare that one does not have to look hard to find compelling evidence of territorial behaviour in humans à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" witness for example, the prevalence of locks on doors, fences and NO TRESPASSING signs. Gifford (1997) identifies six types of behaviour humans portray in certain environments. Personalisation and Marking à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this is a type of behaviour which occurs in many different settings such as; restaurants, games arcades and many more which individuals are not even aware of. Personalisation and marking can also be intentional at times such as; No intruding or No tracking. Aggression and Territorial defense à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Gifford (1997) states that territoriality and aggression go hand in hand. Aggression is a type of behaviour that arises under some circumstances such as the protection of ones home in the event of an intrusion or when territorial restrictions are unclear. Dominance and Control à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" dominance is related to the amount and value of territories every individual holds. Control refers to the influence on space, ideas and other aspects in those territories. According to Altman (1975) territorial behaviour must be considered more properly as a mechanism which regulates the borders of the self/other through the process of personalisation or demarcation of places of objects possessed by a person or a group. Consequently, this mechanism is useful for describing the more general process underlying the relationship between persons and the environmental space (Bonnes et al 1995). 4.3 Achieving territoriality in design Gifford (1997) states that territoriality should be analysed in each environment as it is a factor which results in preferring or not preferring an environment. Furthermore, the design of a particular space should try to diminish aggression, enhance control and encourage a sense of order and protection. According to Faulkner et al (1994) symbolic of our psychological identification with our place is our attitude of possessiveness and arrangement of personal objects and furnishings within it. The meaning of our place suggests that it is a place where we as individuals often feel we can wield control over, be innovative, communicate our individuality to others, feel protected and secure it from other unwanted visitors. Gifford (1997) further suggests that individuals are unlikely to alter furniture or other arrangements in public territories because they do not see them as their own, even when no one else claims the space as a primary territory. Demirbas and Demirkan (2000) declare that many people place personal belongings in an environment to define their territory. References ALTMAN, I. 1975. The environment and social behaviour. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole. BECHTEL, R.B., CHURCHMAN, A. TSERTSMAN, A. 2002. Handbook of environmental psychology. John Wiley and Sons. 722p. BELL, P.A., GREENE, T.C., FISHER, J.D. BAUM, A.S. 2005. Environmental psychology. 5th ed. Routledge. 634p. BONNES, M. 2003. Review of environmental psychology: principles and practices. 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Journal of environmental psychology. 29, 208-219. HÃÆ'–LSCHER, C., MEILINGER, T., VRACHLIOTIS, G., BRÃÆ'–SAMLE, M. KNAUFF, M. 2006. Up the down staircase: wayfinding strategies and multi-level buildings. Journal of environmental psychology. 26, 284-299. IACHINI, T., RUOTOLO, F. RUGGIERO, G. 2009. The effects of familiarity and gender on spatial representation. Journal of environmental psychology. 29, 227-234. INALHAN, G FINCH, E. 2004. Place attachment and sense of belonging. Emerald group. 22, 120-128. KAPLAN, S. R. KAPLAN. 1982. Cognition and Environment. NY: Praeger. KEENAN, K.M. 2005. Invasion of privacy: a reference handbook. ABC: Clio. 259p. KENT , S. 1993. Domestic architecture and the use of space: an interdisciplinary cross-cultural study. Cambridge: University press. 192p. KNEZ, I. 2005. Attachment and identity as related to a place and its perceived climate. Journal of environmental psychology. 25, 207-218. MALGULIS, S.T. 2005. Privacy and psychology. Normative, psychological and social perspectives. Journal of environmental psychology. 1-26p. MARSHALL, N.J. 1972. Privacy and environment. Journal of human ecology. 93-110. MILLIGAN, M. 1998. Interactional past and potential. Symbolic interaction. 21, 1-33. NDUBISI, F. 2002. Ecological planning: a historical and comparative synthesis. Center for American places. 287p. PASSINI, R. 1984. Spatial representations, a wayfinding perspective. Journal of environmental psychology. 4, 153-164. PAYTON, M.A. 2003. Influence of place attachment and social capital on civic action. Journal of natural resources. 93. PEDERSON, D.M. 1999. Model for types of privacy by privacy dimensions. J ournal of environmental psychology. 19, 397-405. PRESTOPNIK, J.L. ROSKOS-EWOLDSON, B. 2000. The relationship among wayfinding strategy use, sense of direction, sex, familiarity and wayfinding ability. Journal of environmental psychology. 20, 177-191. PRETTY, G.H., CHIPUER, H.M. BRAMSTON, P. 2003. Sense of place amongst adolescents and adults in two rural Australian towns: the discriminating features of place attachment, sense of community and place dependence in relation to place identity. Journal of environmental psychology. 23, 273-287. PROSHANSKY, H.M. 1987. The field on environmental psychology: securing its future. Handbook of environmental psychology. New York: John Wiley Sons. PROSHANSKY, H.M., FABIAN, A.K. KAMINOFF, R. 1983. Place-identity: physical world socialisation of the self. Journal of environmental psychology. 3, 57-83. RELPH, E. 1976. Place and placelessness. London: Pion. SALMI, P. 2002. Wayfinding design: hidden barriers to universal access. Implications. Info rma designs. 6p. SHUMAKER, S.A., TAYLOR, R.B. 1983. Towards a clarification of people-place relationships: a model of attachment to place. Environmental psychology: directions and perspectives. 219-251p. SPIERS, H.J., MAGUIRE, E.A. 2008. The dynamic nature of cognition during wayfinding. Journal of environmental psychology. 28, 232-249. VEITCH, R. ARKKELIN, D. 1995. Environmental psychology: an interdisciplinary perspective. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. 461p. WESTIN, A. 1970. Privacy and freedom. New York: Atheneum. 487p. WARZECHA, C.A., LIME, D.W. THOMPSON, J.L. 2000. Visitors relationship to the resource: comparing place attachment in wildland and developed settings. Journal of natural resources. 4, 1-15.

The Argument Gre Sample Essay Discusses Six Different Types of Conversational Conversations

The Argument Gre Sample Essay Discusses Six Different Types of Conversational ConversationsThe Argument Gre sample essay examines the various ways that arguments are used in conversation. It focuses on six different types of argumentative situations and then explains how to deal with each one. This material is valuable for anyone who is learning about different types of arguments and how to write effective essays based on those arguments.These essay topics are all part of what I teach to college students, but these are the types of situations they are the most likely to encounter in a conversation. Argumentative situations are different from one person to another. They may be used for argumentative purposes in a persuasive dialogue, a debate, or a dialog. In the end, each individual's situation will vary.If you are familiar with conversationalists, you know that they are skilled at using different ways to communicate their ideas. They can be talking too fast for you to understand, an d then they are just not being heard by you. Or, they are speaking too slowly for you to comprehend, and you feel very alone in your silence. Then, they are speaking too loudly for you to understand, and you feel uncomfortable in your environment. Argumentative dialogues involve various degrees of argumentation and are so multi-dimensional, that they can be quite tricky to deal with.These challenges for the challenge writer do not limit themselves to only a person's words, though. Every person is an opportunity to debate. We must not lose sight of this fact. Every person's style of speaking or not speaking, is a decision that we have to make. Thus, each individual must be dealt with individually.Well, that may be difficult to imagine, especially if you have encountered someone like this before. However, it is true. People move around all the time, and they change their ways of speaking, as well as their tones of voice, as the circumstances call for it. It is just our human nature.An d that is why great speeches can sound so much like the ordinary. The speaker has been trained and knows that when you make a mistake, you speak slowly and make sure to speak as clearly as possible. When you speak slowly, you are also signaling that you are not someone who likes the public eye. Likewise, you will also have to take into consideration the audience and their responses to you.Your audience will have valid questions, and you will have to be able to respond to them. They may well need you to say something that you have not said in any of your past presentations. If you get caught up in taking that for granted, you will be sorry. You will need to prepare yourself for every eventuality.Argument Gre sample essay topics will challenge you but also give you a sense of purpose. They force you to examine your skills in conversations, and the way you are able to deal with people.

Classified Facts on What Are Good Topics for an Argumentive Essay That Only the Experts Know Exist

<h1> Classified Facts on What Are Good Topics for an Argumentive Essay That Only the Experts Know Exist</h1> <p>you have an alternative to choose probably the best point for factious exposition from our rundown! In case you're in a school and wish to form a contentious article, you should pick a subject of high significance. Moral factious exposition points are a couple of the most straightforward to become overzealous with. Picking themes for pugnacious expositions is fundamental for your general achievement. </p> <p>So verify that you settle regarding a matter, which has values in it. In the event that you get the chance to choose your own theme, that is acceptable. Thusly, the point should be easy to refute! You will probably locate an alternate and incredible point you will love to expound on. </p> <p>If you appreciate the subject of your history paper, you will get a kick out of doing research for it. You will be doled out a subject, or your educator will empower you to choose your own. It's conceivable to choose a captivating subject from any region of science. </p> <h2>Up in Arms About What Are Good Topics for an Argumentive Essay? </h2> <p>When you are done with your paper, you should not only check it for spelling and syntactic mistakes, however by and by, it additionally must be checked for coherent errors. Ordinarily, it does exclude references and statements in it. It's imperative to choose easily proven wrong contentious exposition subjects since you need restricting focuses you may counter to your own focuses. You should back up your perspective with all around explored realities and information as well. </p> <h2>What Are Good Topics for an Argumentive Essay: the Ultimate Convenience! </h2> <p>When you have a finis hed layout, you'll have a bit by bit manage that it is conceivable to follow till you're finished composition. 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Around the globe, migration is a well known point as nations experience the ill effects of war and money related debacles. </p> <h2> The What Are Good Topics for an Argumentive Essay Pitfall</h2> <p>Argumentative articles are a couple of as well as can be expected compose as an understudy. A contentious paper is a piece of the influence. Factious works is a specific sort of a paper. </p> <p>If you're contemplating how to form an influential article, you should realize that composing a paper is a confused practice. A contentious paper is a sure kind of scholastic composition. The postulation gives you a rule on the most ideal approach to with composing the paper. 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It gives the general decision of the contention. </p>

The True Meaning of Top College Essay Samples

<h1> The True Meaning of Top College Essay Samples </h1> <h2> Top College Essay Samples Can Be Fun for Everyone </h2> <p>The last bit of the passage capacities as the change in the following section. Very much done examples gracefully a training in position. Figure out what you've realized. </p> <p>Your CV is the underlying advance for your dream work as it's the principal point to be seen by the selection representatives and by considering the various CVs they waitlist the up-and-comers from an assortment of utilizations they've accomplished. Help is only a call away. </p> <p>Although each aspect of your school application is essential, a solid school confirmation exposition is only one of the principle components of the application. There's no excessively direct or too extreme endeavor for us. To begin with, you have to concentrate on the topic of subject. </p> <p>In the end, a letter of proposal may likewise be required by the college. 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It's alright to place in a touch of diversion to your account. </p> <p>Your proficient article author is probably going to make your paper unmistakable and unique. Your exposition doesn't need to be a novel. In the event that you are needing a very much made article, at that point you can rely on us to convey. In spite of extraordinary evaluations, an inadequately composed exposition will give you a poor name. </p> <p>To achieve this, conceptualize on themes that you're energetic about. Introduction is in any event as basic as content.</p> <p>It's conceivable to peruse the web to find formats and test expositions to enable your plans to begin to come to fruition. Get your expressive energies pumping by conceptualizing all the potential thoughts you can envision to manage your article question. A theory explanation works as a guide, on which the rest of the paper is relied on. 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For example, an understudy may wish to expound on a specific hardship in life which the person has survived. In case you're starting to feel baffled or overpowered by your article, take a rest and accomplish something other than what's expected. A solid paper can give you the absolute best chance to get in the school that you dream about.</p> <h2> Whatever They Told You About Top College Essay Samples Is Dead Wrong...And Here's Why </h2> <p>After finding our site, you will no longer should trouble loved ones with these sorts of solicitations. You may even cry a few tear s on it. What loads of individuals don't have any thought, all things considered, could be the most ideal approach to discover school articles cases. </p> <p>Going over top school article models is an amazing route for understudies to discover increasingly about desires. Understudies have occupied existences and every now and again disregard a coming cutoff time. The understudy should be in a spot to share their qualities and dreams they seek to accomplish when they get the event to get in the school in the conversation. Hence, almost the entirety of the understudies will focus on verifying they have the right evaluations to enter a particular school. </p> <p>One of the most troublesome components of school life is funds. Our organization consistently organizes the needs and necessities of our clients. Choosing the correct task help administration on the web can handle every one of your investigations related assignments. A couple of the preferences which you can get when you enlist our administrations consolidate the following. </p>

Essay Writing Will Change Over the Next Few Years

Essay Writing Will Change Over the Next Few YearsThe college essay scene is going to change and be redesigned and it's important for students to understand this change in order to prepare for it. We'll look at a few of the ways in which the essay scene might change over the next few years.The first thing that's going to change about the college essay scene is that students are going to have to consider things like audio and video technology. The days of students going to classes and getting papers written on their computer screens are long gone. Students will be using their laptops and other devices to send them to class and to write their papers.Many people think that the first thing that is going to change about the college essay scene is that students are going to have to write on paper. It is true that this is going to be the normal way of doing things. When students start writing for their college papers, they're going to realize that they need to write on paper because it is no t going to be possible to take a nice notebook and write everything out in print.The technology that is going to have a long way to go to catch up with paper is the technology that allows students to submit their essays online. There are plenty of websites that allow students to submit their assignments electronically. The more that they learn about using online essay writing software, the easier it is going to be for students to write on paper.Electronic submission of assignments is only one of many things that will be changing about the essay scene over the next couple of years. In fact, it may not be the most important thing to many people. For some people, though, it's essential to have every last detail of their work written out before they sit down to write their essays.It's important for students to realize that one of the biggest major elements that will be changing about the essayscene is that students are going to have to start thinking about what they want their assignmen ts to look like. A student who wants to study for an exam that has a hard deadline needs to be able to think about what kind of paper he or she will write when that deadline arrives. It may be good enough to start out with a simple outline and then decide how he or she wants to go forward from there.Since so much of the content in a college essay is going to be subjective, students need to be able to come up with ideas about what it's like to be them. If they write about experiences of an interest that they have, they'll have to do a great deal of research before they can get started on their own college essay. It is going to be necessary for students to get all of their information together so that they can start writing.Students have to make sure that their academic writing skills are up to par before they begin writing for college assignments. There are many people who are looking for essay writers these days. Students who aren't sure how to write for their essays will soon reali ze that they have plenty of help waiting for them.

Parcc Essay Samples - Find Out What Your Needs Are and How to Get Them

Parcc Essay Samples - Find Out What Your Needs Are and How to Get ThemAre you a student and you want to get a part essay samples, then there are a lot of ways to get the results that you are looking for. You should definitely go to school and find out what you can do to get what you are looking for. If you are not really sure about what is going on at the school, then ask your parents. They will give you some good advice.Once you have decided to do a part essay, then you must know about what the types of paper consist of. There are four types that you need to know about so that you will be able to come up with something that will meet your needs. Once you know about the types of essays that you will be doing, then you will be able to know what type of paper you need to do.The first type is the narrative type, which is usually in the first paragraph of the essay. The second type is the analogy type which is in the second paragraph. The third type is the report type, which is in the th ird paragraph. The fourth type is the persuasive type which is the fourth paragraph.The types of essay also differ from school to school and from college to college. This means that they will have different standards to meet. Once you know what the standards are in each school, then you will be able to make better decisions about what type of paper you will be able to do.Once you know what you are looking for, then you can figure out which school will help you with your needs. For example, if you are looking for something that will meet your needs at the school, then you will be able to find out what is going on in the class and how well students are doing. You will also know about how many students are in the class so that you will know how many people to try to get into the class.You will be able to tell if the class is full and if there are not enough students in the class to help with your parcc essay samples, then you will know what kind of essay you need to do in order to help meet the needs of the class. This will help you get the type of essay that you need to do.If you want to get part essay samples, then you must know what is going on at the school and what needs to be done in order to get them. This is the best way that you can get the kinds of essay that you need to do.

Boo Radley Free Essays

Boo Radley Boo Radley, an enigmatic character in To Kill a Mockingbird is an interesting man to behold. Standing six and a half feet tall with a scar traversing his face, Boo has an intimidating appearance. Boo has an infamous reputation; as a mutilator of domestic house pets, as a drooling stalker that supposedly peered in neighborhood windows in the dead of the night, and for having halitosis that purportedly would wilt a flower. We will write a custom essay sample on Boo Radley or any similar topic only for you Order Now Although nearly no one had ever seen this â€Å"town lunatic†, rumors spread like wildfire about his personality quirks and disheveled appearance. Boo has decayed yellow teeth. Allegedly, this mystery man’s pecan tree was poisonous and his mouth is tainted with the blood of cats and chickens that he had tortured. Tortured was often used in describing Boo, but rumors and innuendo are more fiction than fact. For instance, Boo Radley was an alias used to hide his real name, â€Å"Arthur†. Growing up as a troubled teen, Boo was part of a gang that was eventually caught for swearing in front of women. The juvenile delinquents were tried and sentenced to industrial school. With a religious and legalistic upbringing, Boo’s father refused to allow Boo to go to industrial school and instead took him home. Incarcerated in the house for years, the prisoner never received a chance to go outside. He was trapped. At age thirty-five the psychologically scarred adult stabbed his father in the leg with scissors. This incident proved to be the final straw for his father and the courts. Arthur was jailed in the basement of the County Courthouse for a short time. Eventually, your past will catch up with you, and Arthur’s did. Only time will tell what becomes of Boo. How to cite Boo Radley, Essay examples Boo Radley Free Essays Everybody in Maybcomb County’s impression of me, Arthur â€Å"Boo† Radley, is through neighborhood fairy tales; I’m described as someone defenseless to society’s significant judgment. Everybody thinks of me as a monster, they’re all petrified of me. I can’t really say I blame them though; anybody would be crazy if they were kept in here as long as I’ve been. We will write a custom essay sample on Boo Radley or any similar topic only for you Order Now I’ve heard a few rumors about me; the one that struck me the most was the one rumor where I apparently stabbed my dad with a pair of scissors in his leg†¦ what kind of person would make such lie up? I have no doubts that all of Maycomb County believe what they think is the â€Å"truth†, but its absolutely crazy how somebody would go that far to make something like that up. â€Å"Wouldn’t you stay in the house if you didn’t want to come out? † (Chapter 5, p. 58). I wanted too! I really did want to come out for once; I do absolutely nothing all day long, spending it only with me, myself and I. I’m restricted from reading the newspaper, watching television, going out on the front porch or even opening a near by window for a breath of fresh air. I feel like I’m in prison; in fact, I literally am! â€Å"Jem gave a reasonable description of Boo: Boo was about six-and-a-half feet tall, judging from his tracks; he dined on raw squirrels and any cats he would catch, that’s why his hands were bloodstained – if you ate an animal raw, you could never wash the blood off. There was a long jagged scar that ran across his face; what teeth he had were yellow and rotten; his eyes popped, and he drooled most of the time. † (Chapter 1, p. 6). I look nothing like that; everything is quite the opposite to be honest. I’m six’1, I eat normal food, like all normal people; I brush my teeth everyday which makes them white, not yellow; and I absolutely do not drool. And how would they know that my hands were bloodstained or not? Did they not mention that nobody has seen me in approximately 15 years? It all just doesn’t make sense to me; somehow people in Maycomb County enjoy and believe the little myths about me. Inside the house lived a malevolent phantom†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Chapter 1, p. 10). Me? A malevolent phantom? They clearly have no idea what they’re talking about; last time I checked, I was human. Just because nobody has seen me in a while that doesn’t mean I’ve turned into a ghost over the years. These people all just don’t get it. They don’t understand the fact that I’m a somebody; that I’m pretty much the same like everybody else – other than the fact that I haven’t been out of my house for about 15 years. They don’t understand that I have feelings as well; everything they say, all the rumors and little stories of theirs offends me. I just hope that everybody in Maycomb County realizes and finds out somehow who I truly am. That I’m a human, just like they all are, not some kind of a monster, who goes out at night, and eats children and cats or whatever their nonsense is. And maybe, just maybe, I have the courage one day to finally get out of the house, go out in the open, where every single neighbor of mine can see me, and show people who I really am. How to cite Boo Radley, Papers